The information society

Managing the changing computer

Topics

• changes in computer technology
• changes in methods
• consequences for organisations
  • organisational structures
  • management of the “IT function”
• Nolan’s stages of growth
• hybrids and chief information officers

Computer classes

• mainframe computers: UNIVAC 1952
• minicomputers: DEC PDP-1 1961
• microcomputers or personal computers: MITS Altair 1975

Computer generations

• 1951-1958
• valves
• magnetic drums

• 1959-1964
• transistors
• magnetic cores

• 1965-1979
• integrated circuits

Fourth generation

• 1971- today
• large scale integrated circuits

Generations of language

1. machine code
2. assembler
3. programming languages: COBOL, FORTRAN
4. 4GLs:
5. artificial intelligence: PROLOG, Lisp

Structured programming

• documentation
• annotation
• indentation of the code
• modules
• re-use of ‘code’

Maintenance

• lack of recognition
• absence of a philosophy
• inadequate planning
• failure to define training needs
• absence of formal change control processes
• lack of knowledge amongst programmers and analysts of change in the business processes and environment

Re-engineering

• performed for individual programs
• still more than 77,000,000,000 line of COBOL program running
• need to undo and re-compile

Structured analysis

why?

• complexity
• expense
• risk of overrun
• poor productivity
• poor performance of information systems in operation
• success of structured programming

Outcome

Failure if:

• never delivered
• abandoned and re-developed
• delivered and never used
• used only after modifications

Design specification

• specific
• complete
• unambiguous
• non-contradictory
• clear
• concise

Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE)

• James Martin Information Engineering Facility
• Oracle CASE*Designer

Changes in computers

• customers
• suppliers
• managers and executives

Distributed systems

• move away from monolithic central systems
• remote access to central systems
• local processing (e.g. in a division)
• unconnected PCs
• fully distributed and networked

IT architecture

• integrated communications
• integrated databases
• integrated applications
• to allow flexibility for the organisation

Trends

• extensive communications networks
• accessible distributed databases
• powerful and easy-to-use workstations
• high-performance, reliable and comprehensive networks

Classes of information systems

• on-line transaction processing systems
• office information systems
• decision support systems
• factory automation

Information systems

• embody and institutionalise organisational knowledge
• grow and elaborate over time
• are remarkably long lived
• congregate and develop as families whose members are highly interdependent

Organisational effects

• technical control of programmers
• management of dispersed resources
• participation in company politics

• getting away from cost benefit analysis
• strategic initiatives
• strategic alignment

Aims

• improve organisational performance
• improve workgroup performance
• improve individual performance

Stages of Growth

• cost-reduction accounting
• proliferation in functional areas
• moratorium on new applications
• database applications

Organisational learning

• S-shaped curves
• crises in Data Processing departments
• more stages to come
• three types of growth
  • computer applications
  • specialisation of DP staff
  • formal management techniques

Growth of specialisation

• operators,
• programmers,
• analysts

• systems programmers,
• systems analysts

• maintenance programmers,
• systems analysts with expertise in a function, e.g. finance

• database expertise
• telecoms expertise

Management techniques

• lax management
• pro-active or sales-driven
• control-oriented
• resource-oriented

Revised stages

• initiation
• contagion
• control
• integration
• data administration
• maturity

Causes of growth

• knowledge (internal and external sources)
• technology
• organisational control

Guidelines for action

• recognise the fundamental organisational transformation from computer management to data resource management
• recognise the importance of the enabling technologies
• identify the stages of the company’s operating unit to help keep data processing activities on track
• develop a multi-level strategy and plan
• make the steering committee work!

Development of a plan

• determine where the organisation stands in the evolution of data processing
• analyse strengths and weaknesses
• choose a strategy that fits the company’s business strategy
• outline growth for 3-5 years

Levels of risk

• high and low
• long and short term
• turnover of systems
• project management

End user computing

• direct, hands-on computing by non-specialists
• filling real needs of users
• loss of budgetary control
• loss of mystique
• growth of understanding about IT
• rapid responses

Origin of EUC

• IBM in Canada in 1974
• bridge between IS departments and “end users”
• focal point for support
• to meet a wide range of demands

Applications of EUC

• accounting, report generation
• search and retrieval
• presentation
• analysis
• decision making
• developing small programs

Organisational control

• hardware
• software
• data
• telecommunications
• training
• development of applications

Problems

• compatibility
• security
• integrity
• capacity

Hybrids

To combine:

• technical knowledge
• business knowledge
• managerial capability

Designation in the USA has been Chief Information Officer

Price Waterhouse

Issues in 1994 were:

• cost control
• integrating IT
• deadlines
• open and client/server systems

Fall in staff numbers.

Increase in outsourcing some or all

Conclusion

• continuing changes in technology
• diffusion of technology into the hands of end users
• changes in the relationship with suppliers and IT/IS/DP departments
• changing needs for IT expertise
• embroiled in strategy and business process re-design

Reading

Friedman, A L with Cornford, D S (1989) Computer Systems Development” John Wiley & Son, Chichester.